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In these early days much more can be said about what might be done than about solid past achievements. What has been happening in the past few years is a revolution in thinking, in the approach to problems of instruction rather than a widespread change in training practice. Progress since 1960 has been particularly rapid and if this should continue the concept of "automatic teaching" or "programmed learning'' will undoubtedly find widespread application during this decade. 1. TRAINING DEVICES, SIMULATORS AND TEACHING MACHINES A variety of mechanical devices has been used in industry and by the armed forces.

It is claimed that such positive confirmation will be reinforcing. (f) An Individual Situation The whole teaching procedure involves one individual at a time. There is no embarrassing class of onlookers to observe mistakes, not even a teacher who might show disapproval. A student is com­ peting with himself. Self-conscious students, perhaps older stu­ dents, may well do better in this situation than in one where their efforts are more publicised. (a) Self-paced This is pre-eminently a situation where a student does set his own pace.

It is nothing like so easy to set up a deprivation schedule with a human as with a non-human subject, and the analogy with the hungry animal in an opérant conditioning procedure breaks down where we can no longer assume a student is motivated to learn. Again we are led to doubt the close parallel between knowledge of results and reinforcement when they are given intermittently. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 31 Numerous experiments have established that an animal will keep up a high rate of response for intermittent reinforcement.

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