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On this understanding of the matter, historical development resulted from a relationship between two agencies. On the one hand, there was creative genius, or the creative minority, constantly rethinking the 22 Prelude content of the life-force which had made civilization what it was. On the other, there was the 'great majority' of 'ordinary human beings' who had not had the 'transfiguring' experience and who, even in the most 'advanced and progressive civilizations', were 'virtually primitive'.

A 'Western formula' - nationhood based on community of language - was said to have 'resulted in massacre', the blame for which was attributed not to the Greeks or the Turks but to 'the West' which had 'unscrupulously' taken advantage of the Turks after the 1908 revolution and had destroyed Turkish selfconfidence and self-respect since. It was 'the West' which had made the Greeks 'conceited and pharisaical' by contrast with the Russians who had preserved their 'spiritual individuality' while embracing Western conceptions in the nineteenth century, and whose 'revolutionary Bolshevism' involved only 'enthusiastic acceptance' of the 'condemnation passed by the Western conscience itself upon the structure 30 Prelude of Western Society'.

Though this was the same as the use attributed to religion when it had become a pressing concern in the early thirties, it was different in three respects: first, because the earlier use was, where the later obviously Toynbee 25 was not, intended to be descriptive; secondly because, in the later phase, religion was what civilization had been in the earlier - the fundamental human activity;finallybecause, from about 1947 onwards, Toynbee was addressing, not the English liberal intelligentsia from which he had emerged and to which he had been speaking up to about 1939, but the United States as his most profitable and enthusiastic audience and a World Power.

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